Lateral geniculate nucleus
The lateral geniculate nucleus is a relay centre on the visual pathway from the eyeball to the brain. It receives sensory input from the retina via the axons of ganglion cells.
The thalamus which houses the lateral geniculate nucleus is a small structure within the brain, located just above the brain stem between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain with extensive nerve connections to both.
The lateral geniculate nucleus is the central connection for the optic nerve to the occipital lobe of the brain, particularly the primary visual cortex.
Both the left and right hemispheres of the brain have a lateral geniculate nucleus.
There are three major cell types in the lateral geniculate nucleus which connect to three distinct types of ganglion cells:
- P ganglion cells send axons to the parvocellular layer of the lateral geniculate nucleus.
- M ganglion cells send axons to the magnocellular layer.
- K ganglion cells send axons to a koniocellular layer.
The lateral geniculate nucleus specialises in calculations based on the information it receives from both the eyes and from the brain. Calculations include resolving temporal and spatial correlations between different inputs. This means that things can be organised in terms of the sequence of events over time and the spatial relationship of things within the overall field of view.
Some of the correlations deal with signals received from one eye but not the other. Some deal with the left and right semi-fields of view captured by both eyes. As a result, they help to produce a three-dimensional representation of the field of view of an observer.
- The outputs of the lateral geniculate nucleus serve several functions. Some are directed towards the eyes, others are directed towards the brain.
- A signal is provided to control the vergence of the two eyes so they converge at the principal plane of interest in object-space at any particular moment.
- Computations within the lateral geniculate nucleus determine the position of every major element in object-space relative to the observer. The motion of the eyes enables a larger stereoscopic mapping of the visual field to be achieved.
- A tag is provided for each major element in the central field of view of object-space. The accumulated tags are attached to the features in the merged visual fields and are forwarded to the primary visual cortex.
- Another tag is provided for each major element in the visual field describing the velocity of the major elements based on changes in position over time. The velocity tags (particularly those associated with the peripheral field of view) are also used to determine the direction the organism is moving relative to object-space.
About the laws of reflection
When light reflects off a surface or object, it behaves predictably, following three laws known as the laws of reflection.
- The three laws of reflection are:
- The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie within the same plane.
- The angle of incidence, which is the angle between the incident ray and the normal, is equal to the angle of reflection, which is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
- The incident ray and the reflected ray are always on opposite sides of the normal, and all three lie within the same plane.
The path of light through a raindrop is a key factor in determining whether it will direct light towards an observer and contribute to their perception of a rainbow. This can be broken down as follows:
- The impact parameter is a measure of the direction from which rays of incident light approach a raindrop and the point at which they strike the surface.
- When using a ray-tracing diagram to map the path of rays through a raindrop, an impact parameter scale is used to select which incident rays are of interest.
- An impact parameter scale is aligned with parallel incident rays and divides the relevant part of the surface of a droplet into equal parts.
- Using a scale with steps between zero and one, 0 is aligned with the ray that passes through the centre of a droplet and 1 with the ray that grazes the surface without refraction or reflection.
Remember that:
- Primary rainbows form when incident light strikes raindrops above their horizontal axis reflecting once off the inside before exiting towards an observer.
- Incident light that strikes raindrops below their horizontal axis and reflects once on the inside before exiting, directs light upwards away from an observer.
- Secondary rainbows form when incident light strikes raindrops below their horizontal axis reflecting twice off the inside before exiting downwards.
- The Law of reflection deals with the angles of incidence and reflection when light strikes and bounces back off a surface and can be used for calculations relating to the curved surfaces of a raindrop.
- Remember that the law of reflection states that the angle of incidence always equals the angle of reflection for a mirror-like (specular) surface.
- The Law of Refraction (Snell’s law) deals with the changes in the speed and direction of incident light as it crosses the boundaries between air and a raindrop and then between a raindrop and the surrounding air.
- An equation can be derived from Snell’s law that deals with the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction of light with reference to the refractive indices of both media.
The best light source for a rainbow is a strong point source such as sunlight. Sunlight is ideal because it is so intense and contains all the wavelengths that make up the visible spectrum.
- A human observer with binocular vision (two eyes) has a 1200 field of view from side to side. In clear conditions, the Sun can be considered to be a point-source filling just 0.50 of their horizontal field of view.
- A wide range of visible wavelengths of light is needed to produce all the rainbow colours. The Sun produces a continuous range of wavelengths across the entire visible spectrum.
- When atmospheric conditions like cloud or fog cause too much diffusion of sunlight before it strikes a curtain of rain, no bow is formed.
- Artificial light sources such as LED’s, incandescent light bulbs, fluorescent lights and halogen lamps all make poor light sources because they emit too narrow a range of wavelengths and don’t emit sufficient energy.
About light, radiation, radiant energy & electromagnetic energy
There is a difference in meaning between the terms light, electromagnetic radiation, radiant energy and electromagnetic energy in physics.
Light
-
- Light is best used to refer to the subset of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye, ranging from violet (shorter wavelengths) to red (longer wavelengths).
Electromagnetic radiation
-
- Electromagnetic radiation refers to the transfer of all forms of electromagnetic radiation through space by electromagnetic waves and includes gamma rays, ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR), X-rays, and radio waves, as well as visible light.
Radiant energy
-
- Radiant energy is most commonly used to refer to electromagnetic radiation carried by electromagnetic waves. Radiant energy can be measured using instruments such as photometers, which detect the intensity of light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic energy
- Electromagnetic energy is a more general term that refers to any form of energy that is carried by electromagnetic waves, including both radiant energy and other types of energy that are not radiant (e.g., static electric fields).
- The type of energy associated with electromagnetic radiation is a measurable quantity in physics, and its measurement is essential for understanding and analyzing physical systems and processes.
- The unit of measurement for electromagnetic energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J), which is defined as the amount of energy required to perform one joule of work
- The electronvolt (eV) is another unit of energy commonly used in atomic and subatomic physics.